The following are pre-midterm key terms from East Asian Buddhism.
Each of them follows a three dimensional definition of what it is, its historical context and how it relates
to Buddhism.
The following are post-midterm key terms from East Asian Buddhism.
Each of them follows a three dimensional definition of what it is, its historical context and how it relates
to Buddhism.
Hinduism
five religions in India: Hinduism, Buddhism, Islam, Jainism, Sikhism.
Hinduism:
- the oldest and the youngest religion: started at 1200 B.C.E, didn't have a name until 19th century
- 83 percent of India's population is Hindu.
- no founding figure, no single text that can serve as a doctrine, no single overarching institution
- centralist and pluralist view: pan-Indian, brahmanic class vs ideas and practices.
Indo-Aryans and Vedas
Aryas: "the noble ones", came from Russia, conquered India.
Veda: "knowledge, religious knowledge"
Four vedic collections: the Rg Veda, Yajur Veda, Sama Veda, and the Atharva Veda
supplementary compositions are too part of Veda: Brahmanas, Aranyakas, Upanisads
the Rg Veda: earliest: praise of Indra (warrior - fight), Agni (priest - sacrifice)
Vedic hymns are understood as a powerful and efficacious speech - mantra
Sacrifice and Society
seen less as a way of defeating enemies than as a means of creating, maintaining, and stabilizing the order
of the cosmos and of society.
The Upanisads and the Renunciatory Model
samsara: the continuing succession of life, death and rebirth.
karman: "(sacrificial) actions", ritual actions have consequences.
moska: the release from the cycle of rebirth, attained through lack of desire.
Stages
The Eight Commemorative Shrines
four major sites: Lumbini (birth of the Buddha), Bodhgaya (enlightenment), the Deer Park (first sermon),
Kusinara (death)
eight commemorative stupas: a more detailed version of the "four major sites"...
Death of the Buddha
the end of the process of death and rebirth, the cycle of suffering.
paying homage to the Buddha's body, distribution of the relics
General Principles of the Vinaya
brahminism (social) - buddhism (middle) - jainism (individual)
vinaya:
- sutta-vibbanga: commentary on personal conduct
- khandhaka: rules of community life
The Middle Way
neither comfort nor discomfort should become an issue to distract one from the quest for enlightenment.
what the Buddha stressed was the monk's subjective state of satisfaction. he always wanted to separate the
Sangha from extremists
If a comfort does not become an obstacle to the life of renunciation, monastic Buddhism does not consider it
unsuitable for renouncers.
properties beyond the standard lists of possessions had to belong to the Sangha as a corporate body not to
any individual
what's important is to be "content with little", and that can be cultivated without stereotyped asceticism
renouncers are supposed to be outside the social system, but outside can shade into above.
respect for freedom from material want is a universal Indian value.
monks are not allowed to refuse proper gifts given to the whole Sangha. to refuse them would deprive the lay
donor of a chance to earn merit
the idea of homelessness permeates early Buddhism.
the middle way again: brahminism (householder's fixity) - Buddhism - Jainism (perpetual motion)
the middle way in washing, in food, etc.
The Period of Preparation
preconditions of the spread of the influence of Buddhism in China:
make the Chinese of all classes responsive to new ideas and institutions, particularly those of alien origin
make Buddhism go through the preliminary process of adaptation
Humanizing of Confucianism
struggle among the four groups (the entrenched great families, the eunuchs, the nouveaux riches and the
intelligntsia) => conflicting power interests => naturalistic critique of Han Confucianism
reluctant to renounce all the principles of order, hierarchy and stability which that synthesis had provided
turned to the long-neglected classics of Taoism => no positive means of restoring a viable society (pure
escapism, cynical peace with the corrupt tyrants...)
Yet it was the cataclysm of mass revolt and political collapse which inspired further and more searching
attacks on the old orthodoxy, bringing it at last into something like total disrepute
The breakdown of the ecumenical order of the Han permitted the spread of Buddhism throughout the Chinese
world
Spread of Buddhism
Buddhism spread from the Indo-Iranian and Serindian kingdoms of Central Asia along the routes of trade
In China, the religion moved along the main routes of internal trade and communication
Tun-huang figures early as a Buddhist center
Divergence: China and India
languages: uninflected, logographic, largely monosyllabic, no systematized grammar vs highly
inflected, alphabetic, polysyllabic, highly elaborated grammartical system
literary modes: terseness, metaphors from familiar nature, concrete image vs discursive, hyperbolic
in its metaphors, full of abstractions
attitudes toward the individual: little disposition to analyze the personality into its components vs
highly developed science of psychological analysis
concepts of time and space: think of both as finite and reckon time in life-spans, generations or political
eras vs think of both as infinite and think of cosmic eons rather than units of terrestrial life
*** social and political values: familism and particularistic ethics vs salvation outside the family
concentrated efforts on formulars for the good society vs laid particular stress upon the pursuit of
other-worldly goals
Translation
First Mahayana translation accessible and reasonably intelligible: done by Dharmaraksa in 286
Confucian and Taoist terms were used to render Buddhist terms. "offensive" words are eliminated
*** ko-i: matching concepts => choosing a group of Buddhist ideas and matchig them with a plausibly
analogous grouping of indigenous ideas
apologetic writing: defense of the alien system. indicates the greatest conflicts between the two traditions
Early Buddhism and Taoism
Early Buddhism is generally regarded as a sect of religious Taoism.
I do not believe that there is anything in the world more propoer to dispose the spirit and the heart of
the Chinese to embrace our holy religion than to make them see how it is in conformaty with their
ancient and legitimate philosophy.
Typical Chinese Literati Who Turned to Buddhist
early training in Confucian classics
developed a strong interest in Lao-tzu and Chuang-tzu and achieved mastery in these texts
one day heard a famous monk lecture
became a monk, studied and began to preach
Mahayana and Hinayana: Subitism (tun) and Gradualism (chien)
Mahayana: after salvation the help of Buddhas and Bodhisattvas and the possibility of a single and sudden
moment of enlightenment
=> Subitism: apprehension of reality in a sudden and complete vision (associated with Taoism)
Hinayana: prescribe an age-long and arduous accumulation of positive karma leading to ultimate release into
nirvana
= > Gradualism: approach to the ultimate reality by analysis, the accumulation of long study (associated
with Confucianism)
Emperor Wu of the Liang
ordered to forsake Taoism and embrace Buddhism
Vimalakirti for the Rich and Powerful
Vimalakirti was not a naked ascetic but a rich and powerful aristocrat
new satisfaction for the rich and powerful in the lavish building of temples and retreats in the developing
style of Chinese Buddhist architecture
North and South
in the South: Buddhism adjusted to elite and popular culture, interacted with southern philosophical and
literary traditions, developed its beliefs and practices in response to the society
in the North: endless wars. Buddhism was introduced with its superior magical power. Buddhism did not have
competition of an entrenched religious Taoism, and the peasantry were converted en masse.
Buddhist monks from the north migrated to the south and southern monks went north.
Kumarajiva
Mahayana Buddhism was presented in Chinese with far greater clarity and precision than ever before
Sunyata - Nagarjuna's concept of the void - was disentangled from the Taoist terminology
First (fragmentary) encounter: Eastern Han Dynasty via trade routes, Mahayana
Confucianism (disrepute), Buddhism (elite, practices similar to Taoism)
Obstacles: scarcity of authoritative Buddhist masters, lack of accurate translations of Indian texts
Kumarajiva
Evolution: Northern and Southern Dynasties
Golden Age: Sui and Tang (silk road, Hsuan-tsang and I-ching traveled to India, support of the court)
An Lu-shan rebellion: marks the beginning of the end of large-scale state patronage of Buddhism
Hui-chang persecution: Buddhism went into a long and inexorable decline
Four periods:
preparation (Eastern Han and early Six Dynasties)
demestication (N & S Dynasties)
independent growth (Sui & Tang)
appropriation (Five Dynasties ++)
How "authentic" is Chinese Buddhism? => the Buddhist conquest of China || the Chinese transformation of
Buddhism?
"missionaries" might have been religious refugees
little evidence that Indian or even central Asian Buddhist priests were active in large numbers
Kumarajiva's translation might be problematic
approch Buddhism through Taoism: replete with Taoist cosmology, terminology and meesianic eschatology
...
But what is authentic? what is right? Who would have been in the position to judge?
There is no normative Buddhism.
To claim privileged access to original or pure Buddhism, whether on the basis of the lineage, knowledge
of scripture, meditative discipline, inner purity, or personal insight,
is to claim the authority and prestige of the tradition as one's own.
Reconsider Confucianism, Taoism, Buddhism and "syncretism"
The problem with syncretism: the category of syncretism presupposes the existence of distinct religious
entities
that predate the syncretic amalgan precisely what is absent, or at least un recoverable. in the case of
Buddhism.
The authority of the word "Buddhism" lies not in its normative significations so much as in its
rhetorical deployments.
This indeterminacy forced local Buddhist ecclesiastics to circumscribe orthodoxy and othorpraxis by
juxtaposing Buddhism with the heterodox teachings of their imeediate rivals:
All self-conscious religious traditions define themselves through contradistinctions with the beliefs
and practices of their neighbors.
The unity of the three creeds (san-chiao ho-i)
misleading to conceive of the signification of Buddhism in terms of a dialogue between two discrete cultural
traditions:
- dialogue is one sided
- Buddhism is construed in terms that compromise its descriptive value and analytic leverage
The problem with cross-cultural transmission and translation: the Chinese preferred to translate foreign
terms and concepts, creating sinitic neologisms when necessary
The nature of Chinese orthography: one cannot read the Chinese script aloud without actually knowing the
language
Sharf argues that there is no "normative" Buddhism, which is why he is skeptical about the frame that denies
Chinese Buddhism. However, I agree with the view that the Chinese never truly understood Indian Buddhism.
Instead, they developed their own interpretation based on Chinese cultural traditions. I think the reason
why these religious traditions come together so well is largely due to the fact that the "Chinese" version
of Buddhism shares lots of similarities with local religions such as Taoism. In fact, Chinese Buddhism is
more like a local religion developed upon the skeleton of Indian Buddhism. For example, Buddhism and Taoism
share extremely similar ideas on renunciation. As for conflicts, few can be found among the three creeds due
to syncretism. This is not only because there were inaccurate translations, but also because in order to
survive on this land, Indian Buddhism had to embrace sinification. For example, the Chinese Buddhists
twisted their narratives on leaving their families to tailor to the Confucian view of filial piety. This
syncretism is more obvious among the masses who are less educated to interpret the original Indian Buddhist
scripts, which is why we need to look closer at popular practices. It suggests that the lay/pro divide in
China exists largely due to the knowledge gap between the masses and the elites, as the masses do not have
access to the more accurately translated written scripts as the elites do.
- It's not true, and therefore it's more important. "Did it really happen?"
- Lineage assertions are as wrong as they are strong. "Lineage" under this context is more like teacher and
students, but not family lineage.
- Precision implies inaccuracy. Numbers, dates and other details. The more "precise" they seem to be, the
more inaccuracy there is.
- Romanticism breeds cynicism. Zen romanticists and the apologists for Confucian triumphalism.
McRae's rules are essentially saying that, history itself is in fact not as important as the
narratives.
Chan Buddhism
not posit words, seperate transmission outside the teachings ("不立文字，教外别传；直指人心，见性成佛")
Chan does not define itself as being one among a number of Buddhist schools based on a particular scripture
such as Tiantai with its emphasis on the Lotus Sutra
the Chan lineage scheme is a combined product of Indian and Chinese culture
the "most Chinese" of all the Chinese Buddhist schools
Lineage-Based
Chan practice is fundamentally genealogical (relational: involving interactions, generational: organized,
reiterative: intended for repetition)
there is no "thing" - such as enlightenment, the Buddha-mind, or whatever - that is actually passed from oen
partriah to the next
the focus is not on "what" is being transmitted, but on the relationship of encounter between the Buddhas
and patriahs
recognition of shared spiritual maturity
McRae's second rule: the more important it is to the religious identity of the individuals involved, the
less accurate it will be
male-dominated, patriarchal: was Chan a weapon to oppress women within Chinese society
The "String of Pearls" Fallacy
"string of pearls" fallacy: whenever we pretend to explain Chan in terms of lineal successions from one
great master to another
Phases of Chinese Chan
- Proto-Chan:
Bodhidharma, Huike
Treatise on the Two Entrances and Four Practices
multiple locations in north China; practice based on Buddha-nature; no known lineage theory. Known through
traditional texts and a few Dunhuang documents
- Early Chan:
Hongren; Shenxiu, Huineng; Shenhui; northern, southern, oxhead factions
Platform Sutra of the Sixth Patriarch
various loosely defined factions/groups, with different approaches to "comtemplation of the mind";
relationship between this and proto-Chan is unclear; lineage theory appear. Known through numerous Dunhuang
documents and tradional sources
- Middle Chan:
Mazu, Shitou; Linji, Xuefeng Yicun; Hongzhou and Hubei factions, antecedents of the Five
Houses
Anthology of the Patriarchal Hall
emergence of the "encounter dialogue" as primary mode of practice and discourse, recorded in colloquial form
and massive quantity in 952, and implying a genealogical model of religious cultivation. Not present in
Dunhuang documents but known through Song texts
- Song-dynasty Chan:
Dahui, Hongzhi; Five Houses, Linji and Caodong schools
Blue Cliff Record
greatest flourishing of Chan, which as an administrative ideology dominated the Chinese monastic
establishment; the image of the Tang dynasty masters operating in enlightened spontaneity was inscribed in
highly ritualized Song-dynasty settings; snippets of encounter dialogue were collected, edited to serve as
precedents of enlightened activity, and used as topics of meditative inquiry
Hui-neng
Bodhi originally has no tree
The mirror also has no stand
Buddha nature is always clean and pure
Where is the room for dust
Although people from the south and people from the north differ, there is no north and south in Buddha
nature.
Never under any circumstances say mistakenly that meditation and wisdom are different; they are a unity,
not two things.
I prefer Hui-neng’s interpretation of Buddhism. Shen-hsiu’s verse and Hui-neng’s verse remind me of the concepts of subitism (tun) and gradualism (chien) from the readings last week. In Shen-hsiu’s verse, he mentions that at all times we must strive to polish our mind, which somehow resonates with gradualism, suggesting that the acquisition of wisdom requires significant devotion and effort. As Wrights points out, gradualism reflects certain thinking of the Hinayana people (I know Hinayana is a troubling term but…let’s just use it for a second:), which is to gain nirvana after the accumulation of positive karma. Different from Shen-hsiu, Hui-neng’s verse sounds more like the Mahayana people, who advertise subitism in pursuit of Buddha nature. He says the mind is originally clean, and that we don’t need to worry about it being stained. This correlates with subitism, and suggests that a sudden moment of enlightenment is possible. Also, I feel like Hui-neng’s viewpoint of “not trying” actually shares some similarities with Taoist ideas that things are already in shape, and that we do not need to change or modify them. Instead, we should just let them be. If we try too hard, we break the middle way and grow attachments and delusions, which push us away from instead of closer to wisdom and enlightenment.
The Koan that I respond to is this one.
How I’d interpret this Koan:
The cat was cut in two because Nansen acknowledged duality, that a cat could be divided into two parts, and
that there existed divergence between the eastern hall and the western hall.
Joshu, on the other hand, denied duality by placing his sandals, which were supposed to be worn on the feet,
onto his head. What he did was essentially saying that in a dualist view, the head and feet are the two ends
of a body, yet from a non-dualist perspective, there are no ends. The human head and feet are essentially
part of the whole body.
I have multiple interpretations for what this Koan was trying to convey with the fact that no one said a
good word to save the cat. I think this is indicating that language is extremely limited, and that no word
is able to reveal the true nature of good. Another interpretation I have is that, there is no good or bad,
which again correlates with the non-dualist point of view.
What I would do if I hear the story as a student:
Well first of all perform, without using language.
Then show Nansen non-duality. It depends on what I have in my hands at that moment. Anything could be used,
sandals, whatever. But I guess the easiest way is just to slap him, showing him the sound of one hand 😬😬
Kukai and Mount Koya
Kukai: known as Daishi-sama, Kobo Daishi (the great master and propagator of teaching), the founder of
Shingon sect.
many legends about this person: led by two dogs to Mount Koya, saw three-pronged ritual implement from China
hanging from a pine, sat in eternal meditation.
Take away the philosophy and Mount Koya will still thrive, but remove its legends and the monastery will
lose its call to the people.
Temple of the Diamond Peak
a hunter with two dogs and Kukai started the journey. The met the king of the mountain, disguised as a
mountain man, who granted Kukai a place for meditation.
when they saw the three-pronged ritual implement that Kukai had thrown away from China hanging from a tree,
he realized that this was a place suitable for the Esoteric teaching.
Kukai said to his disciples: " I think I'll be leaving this world sometime during the third month of next
year. To the great worthy Sinnnen, I bequeath the Temple of the Diamond Peak."
Japanese Religion
not a specific religion, but rather a general abstration.
five religious strands: Shinto, Buddhism, Taoism, Confucianism, and folk religion, with Christianity
possibly the sixth.
Transmission
difficulties:
- emperor considers it a threat.
- the uji, who had only recently been willing to accept the supremacy of Imperial spiritual leadership.
- introduction made by King of Paekche from Korea.
- ** would it anger the native gods
first emperor to espouse Buddhism: Yomei, whose mother was a Soga. took up the faith when he was ill.
Uji
shimebetsu, kobetsu and bembetsu:
- shimebetsu: claimed descent similar to the Imperial family
- kobetsu: Imperial descent
- bembetsu: foreign descent
The Soga and Mononobe clans: former kobetsu, more liberal, should import Buddhism; latter shimebetsu, more
conservative, should not
adoption of Buddhism as a result of the battle between the two clans.
Prince Shotoku (Shotoku Taishi) and Buddhism
son of the first Buddhist emperor Yomei. superhuman intelligence once he was born. Soga.
"avoid evil" and "undertake good". the goal is the purify the mind
crucial development: the beginning of official embassies to China in 607, which led to the Ritsuryo reform
movement
important era of sutra imports and temple building
Asuka Buddhism
a mundane instrument of the ruling classes. enforces the roles of the Imperial family and aristocracy.
healing cults: cult to Yakushi Nyorai as a healing Bodhisattva.
keka, ango, hojo-e and sai-e: keka (rite of repentance) in honor of Yakushi, ango (retreat) for lectures for
the aristocracy, hojo-e (gathering to liberate captive creatures), sai-e (vegetarian repast) for laymen
The Ritsuryo Government
after death of sShotoku Taishi, soga leaders killed, Natakomi clan ruled.
remove Buddhism from Soga domination and display the power of the new government. implement Chinese
Buddhism. government recognition of the importance of Buddhism
In order to understand Buddhism in Japan, one has to take into consideration all other four religions, in particular Shinto, since any strand is not just the strand itself but a combination of several influences. There is no single sacred scripture in Japan that is considered authoritative for all people, and individuals consciously affiliated themselves with several traditions. Therefore, two different religions may share certain terms. For example, “gods” in Japan can be understood as either kami in Shinto, or the Buddhas and Bodhisattvas in Buddhism. Also, different religions share some common rituals. For example, the Japanese hold local festivals to connect with both the kami and the Buddhas and the Bodhisattvas, and receive their sacred power. This happens as a result of integrating local traditions from Shinto with imported traditions such as Buddhism. However, we should also note how Japanese Buddhism is distinct from Indian Buddhism and Chinese Buddhism for the very same reason of integration, despite the fact that Japanese Buddhism was originally imported from China and, fundamentally, from India. In conclusion, just like what Earhart suggests for Shinto, we should realize the distinctive characteristics of Japanese Buddhism without claiming that there are unique properties of Japanese Buddhism entirely absent from the other four strands.